Jack McVicker 2/13/11

The Domestication of Dogs

I. Introduction
The Domestication of the canine began with the gray wolf. This domestication began several thousands of years ago. Domesticated dogs provided early humans with a guard animal, fur, and a beast of burden. A beast of burden is a labor animal that is usually domesticated. A site of domestic dogs date back to 1656 where a domestic canine is seen in Diego Velazquez’s painting “Las Meninas”.

II. Discovery
The discovery of domesticated dogs seemed to be a very conscious effort by humans. The theory is that the ancient people would take wolf pups into their house or den, adopt them, feed them, trained them and then eventually tamed them. This theory is completely false according to Biologist Raymond Coppinger, who has spent over 45 years of his life working canine studies. Coppinger believes that the ancients would not have had the time necessary to train these wolves, and even if they kept them in their house they would not be very docile in the aspects of food or breading for that matter. If you try and interfere with wolves and their reproductive performance, you could die directly on the spot. Raymond Coppinger has a completely different theory, stating that the wolves began to domesticate themselves. He suspects that wolves began to do this right around the time of the end of the last Ice Age which was approximately 15,000 years ago. He found that because people began to form villages and start to live in one place that the wolves began to follow because evidence of dog fossils came from around this time era.
I will admit that I did not believe Mr. Coppinger at all up until this point in his research when he spoke more about the villages. He stated, “People are organized into continuous settlements — villages where they remain for a long period of time, whether there were sitting on the edge of a shell fishery or on the edge of a coral reef. When humans live in the same spot for a long period of time, they create waste, including both sewage and, more importantly for the dog, leftovers. There are things people can’t eat, seeds that fall on the ground, things that have gone bad,” Coppinger says, “The garbage, which might be found in dumps, or just scattered near houses, attracts scavengers: cockroaches, pigeons, rats, jackals — and wolves.”

Through this research we cannot be sure where the true discovery of domesticated dogs came from, but it seems to be that the first wolves to be domesticated were from Asia.

III. Biology and Behavior
Behavior is included in every activity of a dog’s life, including scratching itself, reproduction, grooming, caring for young, communication, etc. The behavior of a dog could be one’s individual reaction to a stimulus or a physiological change. Physiology is the function of living systems, so a change like this could include illness. The method frequently referred to as “Tinbergen’s four questions”, outlines the specific aspects that are felt to be the central task of ethology (biologic behavioral study). Here are the questions and answers.
1. What causes barking? The answer to this question refers to the immediate causes, such as which the stimuli elicit or stimulate a particular behavior.
2. What is the function of barking? In this case, the answer describes how to performance of a behavior affects that affects the reproductive success, and the fitness of the dog. It has to do with evolutionary aspects and consequences.
3. How does barking develop during ontogeny? Studies of this question say that it depends on the way behavior modifies based on individual experience. That also would answer questions on how barking matures, and how it changes with the age of the dog.
4. How has barking developed during phylogeny? This question is clearly directed towards evolution. It is impossible to examine the vocal behaviors of a fossil but comparing vocalizations of different now living dogs may help us understand this with more depth.
*Ontogeny – it is defined as the history of structural change in a unity, which can be a cell, an organism, or a society of organisms.
*Phylogeny – it is the study of evolutionary relatedness among groups of organisms.

IV. Impact on the world
The impact domesticated dogs have had on the world can have many different answers. In the beginning of domestication they served as a source of food, fur, and a working animal. As time has progressed dogs have come to live in 49.9 % of houses in America. Dogs can now serve as a pet, a nose that special task forces can utilize, a guide for those who cannot see, and most of all they can serve as a friend.

V. Journal Article Review
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=SpkSd__EdKYC&oi=fnd&pg=PA21&dq=domestication+of+dogs&ots=4l-yULPTY7&sig=wlrZ7m89pgn2uG8E1mwh2Q5ODX4#v=onepage&q=domestication%20of%20dogs&f=false
This book written on the history of dogs was filled with useful information used on this blog. The author of the book “The Behavioral Biology of Dogs” Per Jensen not only used his knowledge but he incorporated a collaboration of useful facts from others who study this topic. He wrote about the origin of the wolf in one section, then talked about the archeological evidence that the first domestic dog came from Europe, Asia, and America. The thing I enjoyed about the book is that he wrote about study methods that were used by a wide range of scientists. Over all, this book was extremely useful in writing this blog.

VI. Bibliography
Coppinger, David. "Dogs That Changed the World - What caused the domestication of wolves? Nature PBS." PBS: Public Broadcasting Service. N.p., 28 Nov. 2008. Web. 16 Feb. 2011. .
Hirst, K. Kris. "Dog History - Domestication and Dog History." About Archaeology - The Study of Human History. N.p., 12 May 2005. Web. 16 Feb. 2011. .

Pacemakers-By Andrew Longe

Andrew Longe 2/14/11

Biology Mrs. Darco

The Pacemaker

If a patient’s heart stopped with out warning it would often result in death if a defibrillator was not used with in five minutes. Before the invention of pacemakers if a patient had a irregular heart beat or there was a blockage in the hearts electrical system it would normally result in a patients heart stopping. But it was not until 1958 when engineer Earl Bakken invented the first wearable pacemaker.

The first wearable pacemaker developed in 1958 was a very crude version of what we know a pacemaker to be today. Earl Bakken invented it for patients of Dr. C. Walton Lillehei who had a irregular heart beat. His invention was called a transistorised pacemaker. This pacemaker was housed in a small plastic box and had controls to adjust to the heart rate and also the output voltage of the electricity. It was connected to electrode leads, which penetrated through the skin. These electrode leads ended in the surface of the myocardium of the heart.

Later on in the year of 1958 the first ever-implantable pacemaker was implanted into the heart of a patient at the Karolinska Institute in Solna, Sweden. After only three hours the pace maker failed. The pace maker was designed by Rune Elmqvist and was implanted into the heart by surgeon Ake Senning. After the first device had failed a second device was implanted that lasted for two days. The patient went on to recive 26 pace makers through his life time until he died in 2001, at the age of 86.

It was not until February of 1960 that a improved version of the pace maker that the Swedes had designed was implanted in Montevideo, Uruguay. This device lasted until the patient died of other illnesses, which occurred nine months later. These early versions had to be charged from outside the body through a induction coil placed on the skin. It was not until April of 1960 that the pace makers made by engineer Wilson Greatbatch was placed in human hearts. These pacemakers used a new type of battery, which lasted longer than the traditional battery use to. It was not until 1971 that the world saw the pacemaker, as we know it today. These new pacemakers used a lithium-iodide battery, which made them out last their predecessors by far.

In conclusion with out the invention of the pacemakers many people would have died. It has helped save the lives of countless people with heart trouble and irregular heart beats.

The journal article I used for this paper was excellent. I helped me understand about what a pacemaker is and the history behind them. It had many diagrams that showed what and where a pacemaker would go inside a human body. I would recommend this source to a peer if they needed information on a pacemaker.

William Luer

Ballpoint Pens

Introduction:

What would you say the most commonly used writing instrument in the world is? If you said the ballpoint pen you’re exactly right! Ever since June 30, 1888, when John Loud patented one of the first ballpoint pens, inventors such as László Bíró have worked on refining the model. The use of ballpoint pens is somewhat boring, normally being limited to taking notes, jotting things down, or doing work. However, many take for granted the ease at which ballpoint pens allow you to do so.

Discovery:

Pens such as the fountain pen were already in use for many years prior to the ballpoint pen. Many people found the use of fountain pens to be painstaking to say the least. This is due to the fact that it was very slow and messy to replace the ink (often needing a very precise eyedropper), the ink corroded the internal holding chamber, and allowed it to leak from almost every joint. Bíró became frustrated by the amount of time he spent cleaning up these ink smudges and also because the sharp tip of the fountain pen often tore throught his newsprint.

Bíró set out to create a pen that would not have those problems. With the help of his brother, he created the first modern ballpoint pen, patented on June 15, 1938. A very small ball, that is free to turn in a socket, is fitted to the inside of the pens tip. As the pen is dragged across the paper, the ball rotates and picks up ink from the inner ink chamber and applies it evenly onto the paper. Fountain pens on the other hand, work by slowly forcing ink from an internal reservoir. This was very unreliable and marks on the paper were often darker towards the start and gradually became fainter and fainter.

Biography:
The invention of the modern ballpoint pen can be credited to the Hungarian journalist, Laszlo Bíró. Bíró was born in Budapest, Hungary at the turn of the 20th century on September 29, 1899. Prior to claiming his name to fame, Bíró worked many odd jobs. He dabbled in the arts of hypnosis, worked as a clerk for an oil company, became a mildly successful painter, and even gave it a go at motor racing. After those jobs, he became a journalist, which at that time had to use irritating fountain pens.

This is where his motivation came for the ballpoint pen.
Bíró based the idea of the ballpoint pen off his printing press, which ensured a uniform application of the ink across the letters. After several years of experimenting with different designs, Bíró finally came across a design that worked with only slight problems such as precision made ball bearings and an ink of suitable viscosity. The help of many experts and a considerable amount of money eventually fixed these problems.

Impact on world:
Ballpoint pens have changed the face of the world as we know it. Ballpoint pens are indispensable, everywhere you go you will run into somebody that has one sitting around in their purse, their shirt pocket, or even behind their ear. It has even become the first object to be teleported. Some will also say that pens are soon to be a thing of the past, due to the rate at which we are increasing our workload on computers.
The ballpoint pen has also led to the creation of large enterprises such as BIC, which in 2009 had 10,449 employees worldwide. However, BIC does not solely manufacture and market pens. It is also known for making lighters, magnets, shaving razors and water sports products. In conclusion, pens have greatly impacted the world by making writing much easier and possible to do and also have led to the creation of businesses which have given thousands of jobs to people across the globe.

Journal Article:
The journal article I found was written by Bíró and was the original patent issued to him in 1938. In this article, Bíró states that the pen works from a “spherical ball rotatably mounted within an inclosure at the free end of a support having an internal longitudinal opening in communication with a reservoir for the paste located within the hollow barrel of the fountain pen or the like.” He goes on to explain the problems that occur with ballpoint pens when used with normal ink from a fountain pen. Additionally, he says that the ink he has created for his pen will remain liquid-like and oozy while in the reservoir but will quickly dry when exposed to the air.

Bibliography:
"A Ball Point Pen Is The First Teleported Object in Our World! Newsflavor." Newsflavor News In Any Flavor: Daily News, Latest News, Local News, Breaking News, US News, World News. Web. 18 Feb. 2011. .

"Ballpoint Pen History - Invention of the Ballpoint Pen." The Great Idea Finder - Celebrating the Spirit of Innovation. 5 May 2006. Web. 18 Feb. 2011. .

"Ballpoint Pen." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 18 Feb. 2011. .

"Budapest Pocket Guide - László Bíró, Inventor of the Ballpoint Pen." Budapest Pocket Guide Budapest Business, Travel & Tourism Portal. Web. 18 Feb. 2011. .

David,, Isaiah. "How Does a Fountain Pen Work? EHow.com." EHow How To Do Just About Everything! How To Videos & Articles. Web. 18 Feb. 2011. .

The Airplane
By: Ally Grayson

Introduction:
The airplane could possibly be one of the most important inventions the world has ever seen. I mean, who would have thought that it would be possible for humans to fly? Well the Wright brothers were the one’s brave enough to take this challenge, and amazingly, they conquered it. Because of them, airplanes are used for mail, transportation, and even in war.
Figure 1

Discovery:
On December 17th, 1903, the first airplane took flight. It had a thirty-two foot wing span and weighed around seven hundred pounds. After many tested studies, the Wright brothers came up with a technique of steering the aircraft using a moveable tail which was connected to the wings for turn stability. In order for this machine to take flight, the brothers had to make a moveable downhill track. The downhill track was made to help the plane gain airspeed in order to fly. Orville Wright was the pilot of this plane, and the flight lasted only twelve seconds.
Figure 2

Biography:
Wilbur Wright was born on April 16th, 1867 in Millville, Indiana. When he was in high school he suffered from a facial injury caused by a hockey puck, which prevented him from continuing his education at Yale. After the injury, Wilbur relied on his father’s books to feed him knowledge, which actually helped him a great deal.
Orville Wright was born on August 19th, 1871 in Daytona, Ohio. Orville was the was the brother with the enthusiastic personality. He was full of abstract ideas which was complimentary to Wilbur’s matureness and direct ideas.
Together, the inseparable boys helped their father out with his business until he opened the Wright Cycling Shop in 1892. This was where Wilbur and Orville’s engineering skills took their flight. After testing many aircrafts over and over again for many years, they created the first airplane in 1903 as seen above. Many years later, Wilbur died on May 30th, 1912. Because of his death, Orville gave up everything because he fell into a depression. As you can see in figure 2, they were very close. During retirement, Orville died on January 30, 1948.

Figure 2

Impact on the World:
Airplanes impacted the world in many ways. For example, it is a faster and more convenient way for traveling lost distances. This helps with the alliances and trade with other countries. Also, a ton of exotic food from other countries are carried over to us by plane. One important example of how the airplane impacted the world is medical equipment. We get most of our surgical tools and machines from other countries, and without them it would be impossible to quickly transport medical items to patients in need.
One way the airplane helps the U.S. is during war, especially in World War I. Some planes were used for tracking the opponent, and other were used for releasing bombs. By the end of World War I, the airplane had transformed from a slow, steady moving aircraft, into a fast and almost impossible target.

Journal Article Review:
The article that I viewed was about a half airplane and half car. I chose this article because it was interesting to me that they have evolved the airplane into something better. It made me think about how many new opportunities for technology the airplane opened up. The Wright brother’s first airplane has inspired people into creating something more and more complex that can possibly someday change the world as the first flying machine did. This airplane car would have never been possible if it wasn’t for the men to started it all: Wilbur and Orville Wright.

Sources:

http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blairplane.htm

http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinventors/a/TheWrightBrother_2.htm

http://www.notablebiographies.com/We-Z/Wright-Brothers.html

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_did_airplanes_change_war

Article:
http://www.google.com/patents?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4881701&id=fvA2AAAAEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=the+invention+of+the+airplane&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q=the%20invention%20of%20the%20airplane&f=false




Figure 1: http://www.google.com.hk/imglanding?q=the+airplane&hl=zh-TW&sa=G&gbv=2&tbs=isch:1&tbnid=zWil8fTo4Ed9NM:&imgrefurl=http://blog.wholetravel.com/2008/12/&imgurl=http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2006/photorelease/q3/060803b_lg.jpg&ei=SYBeTe7SEMndgQfKhcimDQ&zoom=1&w=450&h=360&iact=hc&oei=SYBeTe7SEMndgQfKhcimDQ&page=1&tbnh=136&tbnw=179&start=0&ved=1t:429,r:22,s:0&biw=1259&bih=851
Figure 2: http://www.google.com.hk/imglanding?q=the+wright+brothers+airplane&hl=zh-TW&safe=active&biw=1276&bih=851&gbv=2&tbs=isch:1&tbnid=FKL0el2P4u1euM:&imgrefurl=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/ulterior-motives/200907/tools-innovation-i-normal-psychology-and-economic-recovery&imgurl=http://www.psychologytoday.com/files/u107/Wright-Brothers-Airplane-001.jpg&ei=6YBeTabYIoXqgQfO7vTGDQ&zoom=1&w=590&h=426&iact=rc&oei=6YBeTabYIoXqgQfO7vTGDQ&page=1&tbnh=139&tbnw=183&start=0&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0

Figure 3: http://www.google.com.hk/imglanding?q=the+wright+brothers&hl=zh-TW&safe=active&biw=1276&bih=851&gbv=2&tbs=isch:1&tbnid=3rUz9VyoMCGAyM:&imgrefurl=http://www.myhero.com/myhero/hero.asp%253Fhero%253DWright_Bros_LC_aliman_US_2011_ul&imgurl=http://www.myhero.com/images/guest/g242901/hero75123/g242901_u88055_The-Wright-Brothers_pic_2.jpg&ei=KYFeTZn3Es3pgQeJx83GDQ&zoom=1&w=340&h=430&iact=rc&oei=KYFeTZn3Es3pgQeJx83GDQ&page=1&tbnh=139&tbnw=113&start=0&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0

The Invention of the DVR by Jay Jenkins

History of the DVR

Introduction:

In today’s society we are all so consumed and caught up in our lives that we rarely have time to watch our favorite programs and TV shows. This also helps with catching sports programs as well. Say there is a big football game that interferes with your plans and you do not want to miss out on the play by play action, well DVR allows you the opportunity to record the game so you can watch it later when you are less busy. Also, for shows that are on at later times you can record while you are sleeping and you can then watch them later. Another thing DVR enables it’s users to do is to pause and rewind live television. These DVRs have become quite the popular addition to everyone’s electronics at home and are sweeping the nation rapidly.

Biography:

The credit for the invention of the DVR is shared by Jim Barton and Mike Ramsay. Jim Barton before the invention of the DVR was a CEO and president of a major software company. Mike Ramsay was also an executive in a different software company at the time. They eventually came to work together at a business called Silicon Graphics and Time Warner’s Full Service Network digital video system. In the beginning, there goal was to work on and eventually create a homing network device but that work ended up leading the inventors to the result of the DVR. Barton and Ramsay went a step up from VCR technology and created the future of video recording through their work of the DVR.

Human Effect:

The effect the DVR has on humans is split up into two different categories which are convenience and advertisements. The main reason people buy a product like DVR is to record their favorite TV shows in case they can’t see it for some reason when it is on its regularly scheduled programming. This is a great and convenient way for people to still see their favorite sitcoms’ or dramas’ without missing it or having to rearrange their own schedule. The only problem is that when the people then have it recorded and in their free time start watching the shows they have taped they start to fast-forward through the commercials. They pass all the advertisements that companies put out on television and don’t allow them the chance to persuade the consumer to buy their product. This could cause a decrease in markets and less opportunity for companies to sell their products.

Discovery:

The discovery of an idea of something like the DVR came in 1956 with the invention of the VCR. The VCR was basically the first version of the DVR. The VCR is a lot less convenient and lacks many of the pluses that the DVR had. For example, Where the DVR can record on its own without you there the VCR in order to tape a program requires your presence to manually record the shows. The upgrade from the VCR to the DVR took about 50 years with many different innovations to get to where it needed to be. It is safe to say that the VCR was the first step of inventing the DVR and without it the Invention of the DVR would have been much more difficult.



Journal:

This journal article was good information on the background of DVR. Personally, since I own one I can agree with the article and the facts that DVR is very beneficial at times. The DVR is very popular because it allows recording our favorite shows and watching them later. This way we will never have to miss out on the world of television.

1. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-dvr-or-digital-video-recorder.htm
2. Journal Article: http://www.ehow.com/about_5583619_digital-video-recorders-faq.html
3. http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/news/2010/03/tivo-turns-the-dvr-into-a-flash-based-app-platform.ars

Asthma

I. Introduction
Asthma is an inflammatory disorder affecting the breathing passageways of people of all ages. There is a wide range of things that can trigger an asthma attack with many symptoms. Today, there are many tests that can help doctors target the exact problem in person with asthma and give the proper treatment to them (“Asthma,” 2010).

II. Symptoms
Asthma has many symptoms to help give the doctor an idea of the type and severity of case that person has. There are various symptoms for asthma with different levels of intensity during an asthma attack:
• Shortness of breath
• Chest tightness or pain
• Trouble sleeping due to coughing, shortness of breath or wheezing
• Wheezing- a whistle sound-common in children
The way a person can know that their asthma is getting worse is if their symptoms are increasing in frequency and intensity. Asthma symptoms flare up in particular situations based on the type a person may have.
• Exercise-induced asthma- This takes place during exercise and tends to become more of a hindrance in colder weather rather than warmer weather.
• Occupational asthma- This type of asthma is either caused or worsened by being in an environment with irritants like chemicals, gases or dust.
• Allergy-induced asthma- This type of asthma is triggered by particular allergies that they may have like dust, mold, or pets (“Asthma,” 2011).

III. Causes
The causes for asthma are a combination of triggers from the environment and genetic factors. The triggers to asthma attacks are different for every person. Some are the following:
• Airborne allergens (pollen, animal dander, mold, cockroaches and dust mites)
• Respiratory infections (common cold)
• Physical activity (EIA)
• Cold weather
• Air pollutants and irritants (smoke)
• Specific medications (beta blockers, aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs)
• Intense emotions and stress
• Food/ beverage preservatives (sulfites)
• Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)- stomach acids back up into your throat
• Females- menstrual cycle
• Food allergic reactions (peanuts or shellfish) (“Asthma,” 2011)
Genetic association studies have shown that over 100 genes are related to asthma. Since 2005, 25 genes have been related to asthma in six or more separate populations. Many of theses genes are associated with the immune system or modulating inflammation (“Asthma,” 2011).

IV. Tests and Diagnosis
It is very difficult to diagnose patients with asthma because of the range of severity compared to other illnesses. The only way for doctors to establish a valid diagnosis is to perform certain test for their patients to determine if they have asthma and, if so, the severity. Some tests are the following:
• Spirometry- measures the narrowing of your bronchial tubes
• Peak Flow- measure how hard you can breathe out and shows the efficiency of your lungs at that time.
• Methacholine challenge- inhaling a known asthma trigger and records your reaction-
• Nitric oxide test-measures how much nirtic oxide you have in your breath-higher level when airways are inflamed
Asthma can be classified by the following:

Asthma classification--Signs and symptoms
Mild intermittent--Mild symptoms up to two days a week and up to two nights a month
Mild persistent--Symptoms more than twice a week, but no more than once in a single day
Moderate persistent--Symptoms once a day and more than one night a week
Severe persistent--Symptoms throughout the day on most days and frequently at night


(“Asthma,” 2011)

V. Journal Review Article

Exercise-induced asthma occurs after exercise and is similar to asthma on a shorter time scale. The first response is bronchodilation and bronchoconstriction comes after. Within 3 and 15 minutes, maximal airway obstruction happens after exercise. Spontaneous recovery takes place over a variable period of time that can range from hours to minutes (Bierman, 2007).




List of References
• Asthma. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.mayoclinic/health/asthma/DS00021

• Asthma. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001196

• Asthma. (2011). Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.ork/wiki/Asthma

• Bierman, Warren. (2007, October 9). Exercise-Indused Asthma. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1442-200X.1987.tb00361.x/abstract

The History of Toothpaste By: CKENOL

I.                 Introduction:

Toothpaste was created more than 7000 years ago. Throughout those centuries and around the world there have been different developments and recipes used to keep the mouth clean and fresh. Today’s toothpaste has come a long way since the ancient Egyptians.

II.             Discovery:

A form of toothpaste has been used since 5000 BC by the Ancient Egyptians. It was used for the same reasons we use toothpaste today like: keeping teeth and gums clean and healthy, teeth whiter, and breath smelling fresh. But it is not like the toothpaste we have today. Instead of paste form it is powder. In Egypt they used a blend of powdered ox hooves, burnt eggshells, myrrh, and pumice (volcanic rock). The Greeks and Romans wanted something that would do a better job of getting rid of plaque buildup on their teeth. So they added ground bones and oyster shells for more friction. They also added flavorings like powdered charcoal and bark to resolve bad breath. The Chinese used many other substances like ginseng, herbal mints, and salts. (1) The 1^st modern toothpaste that we use today was developed in the 1800s. In 1824 dentist named Peabody was the 1^st to put and use soap in toothpaste. By 1896, Colgate was mass producing and selling toothpaste in collapsible tubes (the ones we use today) and replaced soap with emulsifying agents (helps to remove plaque) like sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium rincinoleate and floride. (2) (3)

III.         Biography of investigator

There are several Peabodys and there is no information specifying his 1^st name therefore I could not find a biography.

IV.        Impact on humanity

Without toothpaste everyone would have bad breath, bad teeth, and gum diseases. But because we have toothpaste we can all have nice healthy smiles. :D

V.            Journal article review

Toothpaste has been around for more than 5000 years. The 1^st forms were powders. Modern forms of toothpaste were made into creams and gels around the 19^th century. Over the centuries there have been a wide range of methods and ingredients used into making toothpaste. (2)

References

·      (1)http://www.colgate.com/app/Colgate/US/OC/Information/OralHealthBasics/GoodOralHygiene/BrushingandFlossing/HistoryToothbrushesToothpastes.cvsp

·      (2)http://armourassociates.com/papers/fluoride.pdf

·      (3)http://inventors.about.com/od/dstartinventions/a/dentistry_2.htm

Toilets by Dalymar

I. Introduction

Even thought there still some pit latrines out there, there have been many changes since thousands of years ago. Even the Old Testament and some laws refer to toilets use and invasion. Around 2000 B.C. there was believed that there was the existence of flushed toilet. During 2750 B.C., there was also a supposition that there was one connected to a drain. There is still some existence of Roman lavatories, a toilet seat located over a drain. Most toilets are usually built next to the bath. Throughout the old ages the waste was delivered to a river out of the fort. Toilet’s bowl and tank are made from clay called vitreous china. Toilet’s seats are made from different material. Plastic seats are made from polystyrene and the wood seats are usually maple or birch.

(figure1)

II. Biography

People believe that Thomas Crapper is the inventor of the first flushing toilet in 1800s when actually it can be traced to 1596. Sir John Harrington was the first one to invent a valve that would release water when pulled. He was the godson of Queen Elizabeth the first. He said to flush toilets once a day for sanitary purposes. Even though he didn’t invent the toilet, we owe him big thanks for developing toilet paper in 50 B.C.

· The first toilet was invented in 1596 by John Harrington.

· The first flush toilet was done in 1738 by J.F. Brondel.

· In 1775, Alexander Cummings invented the strap, a valve between the bowl and the trap.

· In 1778, Joseph Bramah redesigned the valve at the bottom of the bowl that worked on hinge to a predecessor to the modern bullock.

· Thomas Twyford, in 1885 built the first trap less toilet in a one- piece.

· There were 350 new toilets applications for new toilets designs between the 1900 and 1932.

III. Human Effect

The invention of toilets has impact our community and our environment. Some of the helps that this discovery have done to our environment are: water reduction (savings in water storage about 20 to 50 %), Shock Loading Capacity, Odor Problems Reduced (toilets take out the odor of the rooms, it almost acts as an extraction fan), no more grey water loading, removal “black water” and last recycling (recycle household waste). There is definitely less environmental impact. No more effluent release into watercourses, no more disruption to soils system through pipeline, and the leakage of raw is eliminated.

IV. Discovery

Some toilets companies are Kohler and TOTO have discovery new toilets. The Kohler’s history started in 1873, when a 29 year old Austrian named John Michael Kohler purchased iron and steel. He started producing cast iron and steel for farmers, furniture factories, and iron pieces for cemetery crosses. In 1883, he decided to improve his customers’ quality of life. He through his ideas started putting enamel coating to a Kohler horse and what do you now he had just created the Kohler Co. first bathtub. He had just entered the plumbing business. TOTO Ltd. was established in 1917, in Japan. It was Japan’s first vitreous china sanitary ware. TOTO USA, Inc. was in California in 1989. By 2006, it had grown and now it has the best plumbing products. TOTO employs more than 550 Americans with two major manufacturing plants in Georgia.

V. Journal

Dhaka is one of the fastest growing metropolises with the population growth rate of 7 %. Dhaka with such a high population does have many basic public toilets facilities. For ten million inhabitants it only has 69 public toilets with appalling condition. This impacts public health and environment. The lack of attention to maintenance of public toilets led to bad facility condition. Compare to other developed countries in the world have many toilets at appropriate locations. But these countries since they are located in a urban area are smelly, wet, and inaccessible people. This journal tries to focus on the physical condition of public toilets in Dhaka city and stresses need to create toilets for large cities of developing countries.

VI. References

· About.com: http://www.toiletology.com/history.shtml. (n.d.). Inventors. Retrieved February 9, 2011, from http://inventors.about.com/gi/o.htm?zi=1/XJ&zTi=1&sdn=inventors&cdn=money&tm=19&gps=249_102_1276_574&f=00&tt=2&bt=0&bts=0&zu=http%3A//www.toiletology.com/history

• Dhaka toilets. (n.d.). sukabhenvis. Retrieved February 10, 2011, from httphttp://www.sulabhenvis.in/articles/Towards%20Development%20%20of%20a%20Standard%20For%20Public%20Toilets%20For%20Developing%20Countries.pdf
• How toilet is made - material, used, parts, steps, industry, machine, Raw Materials, The Manufacturing Process of toilet, Quality Control, Byproducts/Waste. (n.d.). How Products Are Made. Retrieved February 10, 2011, from http://www.madehow.com/Volume-5/Toilet.html

· piping, e. t., infrastructure., & considerations, s. (n.d.). The Benefits of Composting Toilets - Composting Toilet World. Composting Toilet World. Retrieved February 10, 2011, from http://compostingtoilet.org/compost

· Who invented the toilet - Syncrat Publishing. (n.d.). Article Index - Syncrat Publishing. Retrieved February 14, 2011, from http://www.syncrat.com/3hr

• Who invented the toilet?. (n.d.). Toilet Paper World Blog. Retrieved February 8, 2011, from http://blog.toiletpaperworld.com/who-invented-the-toilet/
• figure1 :wikipedia.org (normal toilet)

Carbon Dating by: Austen Werab

I. Introduction
Carbon dating is a method of using naturally made carbon to estimate the age of materials up ranging from 58,000-62,000 years. The discoverer of this method of age estimation was Willard Libby, an American physical chemist. He developed this method in 1949 with some help from his colleagues at the university of Chicago. This method is said to have revolutionized archaeology and is still used to this day.
II. Discovery
This method of finding the age of fossils by using carbon from the sun (carbon dating) was discovered by Willard Libby in 1949. Willard was curious about the cosmic radiation from the sun that hit the earth, and he then was determined to find out how it could be noticed or detected. He soon then came up with his theory that stated that every living thing takes in C14 (carbon-14) and when it dies, the C14 decreases until it eventually disappears, but it doesn't diminish completely, it stays at a set rate which is half of the carbon that the item had before it ceased (7). He hypothesized this theory in 1946. As many times as Willard tried to prove this, he couldn't because there were many other natural sources giving off carbon so he and is colleagues used a Geiger Mueller radiation detector that they modified to find the carbon radiation that they wanted to find to prove his hypothesis. This reduced outside carbon source by 95%. This is how Willard first started to discover the radiation that came from the carbon, thus creating the method of carbon dating.
III. Biography of discoverer
Willard Libby (1908-1980)
He was born in Grand Valley, Colorado on December 17, 1908. He received his B.S. and PhD at the university of California in Berkeley, where he later became a professor. After the start of WWII, he started the Manhattan project at Columbia university, he was responsible for the gaseous diffusion of Uranium-235 that was later used in the atomic bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima. In 1945, he became a professor at the university of Chicago which led to his hypothesis (listed above) in 1946, with the help of his colleagues. And in 1960 he was awarded with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his development of the carbon dating method.
IV. Impact on the world/humanity
This method is good and still is good because it can be used to date materials back to about 50,000 years ago or more. Scientists can use this method as long as there are earth made or organic materials on the earth and they can use this to develop calendars and historical charts/timelines of their findings. For example, say a group of scientists find a dinosaur skeleton and date it back to a long time ago, they can now start a calendar and map how different species of dinosaurs that they find showed up and what time period they showed up around by using carbon dating. They can basically use it to see how old the species is and how long it has been fossilized. Archeologists around the world still use this method to this day!
V. Journal article review
This journal article is about how many scientists think that Neandertals lost their evolutionary fight with Homo sapiens to become the Earth's dominant human life form. These scientists all want to see how long this battle lasted , so they decided to use the famous method, carbon dating. And it also explains how these scientists are hoping to develop a time line back to the 60,000 year point to map out everything that happened between these two species, and they will figure it out all thanks to carbon dating.
YOUTUBE video- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=31-P9pcPStg
VI. References -
1. http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby
2. http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=24000
3. Journal article: http://www.questiaschool.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5028583679

Bugatti Veyron Super Sport

What is the Fastest Production Car in the World

Introduction:

What is the vastest production car in the world? The answer was a Bugatti Veyron 16.4. A Italian car made in France and also in Germany. The car has a 8.0 liter W16 engine with sixteen cylinders in four banks of four. The engine is fed by four turbochargers and is 7,993 cubic centimeter. If you don’t understand what I just said then listen to this. It has 1,001 horse power (hp) thats only about lets say, 880 horses more than Sammy Bozzas ford focus! And when his car has only 1 radiator to cool his car, the Bugatti has 10. And the Bugatti goes 0 - 60 mph in 2.5 seconds, and0 - 100 in 7.5 seconds, when Sam's Ford goes 0 - 60 in 8 seconds. And the Bugatti tops at a blistering 253 mph which covers one wholefootball field a second, and consumes and 2 gallons of fuel a minute. And you can get all this for a total of only 1.7 million dollars. But.... America created a car called the Shelby Ultimate Arrow that would top 256 mph, making it the fastest car in the in the world. Until a couple months latter Bugatti came out with a new beast to reclaim its title, “The Bugatti Super Sport.”
Discovery :

The Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Super Sport is now the fastest production car in the world launched in August 2010. But to create this monster the normal Veyron was added a Volkswagen golf hp’s to it, which makes it now 1200 hp. And if your wondering why it need another 200 hp’s too give it a couple more mph was because of mother nature. Air resistance and friction is the only thing holding this car back. The faster you go the thicker the air becomes against the car. For example at 100 mph air resistance is like driving threw a light wiped cream, but at 200 mph its like a very thick cream cheese, and at 250 mph its like driving threw a fruit cake. And so cutting threw the fruit cake requires more than just added power but larger turbochargers, enlarged coolers, and, a new slippery carbon fiber body making it a full 110 pounds lighter. The Super sport goes 0 - 60 in 2.5 seconds which is the same as before, but besides that the car is a whole different animal. The supper sport goes 0 - 100 mph in 4.5 seconds which is almost two times faster than Jays Nissan Extera 0 - 60 mph time! The Bugatti Super Sport top speed is 267 mph, and this is no rocket ship it has air conditioning, a radio, and windscreen wipers. And cost a grand prize of 1.7 million pounds or 2.4 million dollars.

Purpose:

The purpose of this car was no cure for disease or travel to another plant but mastering the physics of friction, air resistance and pure power in a production car. This car has changed boundaries that cars can reach and will push others in the future this car will never be forgotten and forever challenged by its world record top speeds for a production car that is legal to drive on a public rode. This car purpose is to go fast!

Impact on the world:

The impact on the world was to blow peoples minds as being the first quad turbochargers in any car. And shock people on the amount of technology, time,and effort to create such a car that sets limits of insane engineering. This car is a stop and stare car with the engine underneath and the perception of the body on top.

One of the Few Places to Max a Bugatti:

For the Bugatti to hit its top speed it takes miles more miles to top out. So Bugatti went to Volkswagens top secret test track which is a huge 30 mile oval shape track that was built in an older cold war no fly zone near the old East German boarder. And the best part is that this test track has a 5.5 mile long flat straight road, it so long you can see the earths flex. It is one of the very few places in the world where you can max out a Bugatti. At the track the Bugatti crew waited on till the wind was calm and when the air was at its thinest. Another part of topping a Bugatti is the tires the tires were made to last 26 miles at its top speed and cost 20 thousand dollars. The crew said it was safe on these tires because the driver was told that the car would run out of fuel before the tires would break because it uses so much fuel exactly 1.7 gallons a minute at those speeds.




Journal Article: http://www.bugatti.com/en/super-sport/technology.html

The journal Article was the official web site for Bugatti veyron Super Sport. It talked about how they enlarged the turbo chargers, made the intercoolers better, made stronger role bars, increased the aerodynamics, and increased balance of the car by adding a carbon fiber body. Their goal was to create a classier faster sport car far above any other. And hell yes they did.





References:


"Bugatti." Bugatti. Web. .

"Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Super Sport Hits 268 Mph - Auto Week Magazine." Car News, Reviews and Auto Show Stories, Photos and Community. Web. 17 Feb. 2011. .

"Bugatti Veyron Pictures, Specs, Price, Engine & Top Speed." Supercars – Car Reviews, Pictures and Specs of Fast Cars & Used Cars. Web. 17 Feb. 2011. .
"Motor Trend." Bugatti Super Sport. Web. .

"YouTube - James May's Bugatti Veyron Top Speed Test - Top Gear - BBC Autos." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. Web. 17 Feb. 2011. .

"YouTube - SSC Ultimate Aero - Guinness World Record Run - 255.8mph." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. Web. 17 Feb. 2011. .

Cochlear Implants: Miracle Machines

By: Katerina Parent

I.              Introduction

Cochlear implants are surgically inserted electronic devices that are used to help hearing impaired or deaf people hear. This device is very complex, one part having to be placed inside the person’s head just above the ear, and the rest simply clipped on the lobe of the ear. First used in Australia in 1978 by Dr. Graeme Clark, cochlear implants have helped tens of thousands of children and adults hear their friend on the phone, listen to a teacher’s lecture, and hear their mother’s voice. The cochlear implant is a miracle machine that has changed people’s lives. (National Institute, 2010)

II.           Discovery

         Over the last few centuries, scientists all over the world have experimented with finding a way to help hearing impaired or deaf people hear. It all began in the late 18^th century when Alessandro Volta discovered the electrolytic cell by putting two metal rods connected to batteries in his ears. Hundreds of experiments were further tested until one man, Dr. Graeme Clark, and his team discovered that “nerve cells in the inner ear can be made to respond back into the inner ear…” and that “nearly normal sound could be reproduced by sending fine patterns of nerve fibers through to the inner ear.” These early findings were the key to creating the first bionic ear. (National Institute, 2010)

         After years of continuous research all around the world, and even a trip to the beach where Clark had a breakthrough using a seashell as the cochlea, he was able to perform the first surgery ever on 46-year-old Rod Saunders. The first cochlear implant operation was performed at the Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital by Clark and fellow surgeon Dr. Brian Pyman. (National Institute, 2010)

III.         Biography of Investigator

         Dr. Graeme Clark was born in New South Wales on August 16, 1935. He received most of his education in Australia, and graduated from the University of Sydney in 1957 with a Bachelor’s degree in medicine and in surgery. After college, he studied mostly in England, starting at a young age to research and eventually create an implant to aid his deaf father. (Kissiah, 2007)

         Clark wondered if hearing could be possible if the damaged or underdeveloped ear could be bypassed and have the auditory nerve stimulated electronically. This would reproduce the coding of sound. After much research, he concluded that an electrode bundle could pass around the cochlea to the speech frequency to produce sound that people could understand but he wasn’t sure how to achieve this without causing damage to the cochlea. After discussing this with his team of doctors, Clark was able to configure the device so that the electrode bundle was free fitting and friction of the wires was reduced with circumferential bands. These bands needed to be the perfect size. It had to be wide enough so that it could decrease the density charge of the electrical current and narrow enough to stimulate the nerve fibers so that the coding of frequency could occur. It also had to be safe enough to test on a real person and hopefully achieve the predicted outcome. His cochlear implant was a complete success and he went on to receive numerous awards for his work with colleague Yit Chow Tong on frequency, pitch, loudness, and elements for speech understanding for the device Clark had created. He was recognized by the FDA in the United States for the implant, and received nine awards during the years of 1985-2010 including the Prime Minister's Prize for Science in 1985. (Kissiah, 2007)

         Dr. Graeme Clark founded the Bionic Ear Institute in 1983 and worked at the University of Melbourne as the Foundation Professor of Otolaryngology for thirty-four years and retired in 2004. He is still alive today and continues to share his dream of “giving deaf children and adults the opportunity to participate as full as possible in the hearing world and to find new ways to restore brain function." (Anderson, 2011)

         IV. Impact on the World

         In 2009, the FDA released data saying that about 188,000 children and adults

around the world have cochlear implants. In the United States alone 41,000 adults and 25,000 children make up this number. Anyone 12 months and older have the option to be fitted for an implant. With an implant, people who are hearing impaired are able to learn to associate different noises with sounds they remember. For those with an implant who are deaf, through speech therapy, they are able to acquire language and social skills.

         The surgical procedure for a cochlear implant is expensive, and the amount of therapy required to learn how to hear can be a lot based on how easily you are able to interpret noises into words. And although it is said to be a very safe operation, every surgery has its complications so it is highly advised to talk to a doctor with great experience with this procedure to get the best results.

(National Institute, 2010)

V.            Journal Article Review

         The journal article that I found by Adam M. Kissiah, Jr. from the NASA-Kennedy Space Center and Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers is titled, “Cochlear Implant Technology.” This article had great information about the history of cochlear implants and their creator Dr. Graeme Clark. Included in the section explaining how the implant works, Kissiah included a link to the fda.org website that shows great pictures of auditory system.

Animation: Normal Ear, Ear with Hearing Loss, and Cochlear Implant Procedure
http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/ImplantsandProsthetics/CochlearImplants/ucm133345.htm

VI. Resources

Anderson, J. (2011). Professor Graeme Clark. Retrieved on February 15, 2011 from 

            www.quazen.com/reference/biography/professor-graeme-clark/

Kissiah, A. (2007). Cochlear Implant Technology. Retrieved on February 15, 2011 from http://www.hearagain.org/history_of_the_cochlear_implant.pdf

National Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (2010)

Cochlear Implants. Retrieved on February 15, 2011 from http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/hearing/coch.html

Wikipedia. (2011). Graeme Clark (doctor). Retrieved on February 15, 2011 from

         http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graeme_Clark_(doctor)

The Addiction of Smoking and Its Effect

I. Introduction

Smoking is one of the most common health hazards in the United States, and not just here but everywhere. People can start smoking as young as the age of eight, all due to peer pressure. Not only is it due to peer pressure, but also advertisement and media. Those who start smoking will become addicted because of the nicotine found in cigarettes. Nicotine is a drug that causes the brain to release endorphins throughout the body, and it causes the brain to adapt to nicotine treating it as though it was a normal receptor for the body. Even though many people try to quit smoking, the only way they will be able stop completely is with help.

II. Addiction

A smoking addiction is when a person creates a dependence and habitual compulsion for a cigarette and the nicotine within it. Drug addiction occurs from marijuana, cocaine, heroine, and nicotine. Smoking takes over the life of a person because of this drug addiction towards nicotine. If someone tries to quiet after smoking for a short or long period of time, the body goes through withdrawal, and can cause severe emotional, mental, or physical reactions. The body will go through these withdrawals because it is trying to re-adjust itself so it can function without the nicotine. Addiction occurs when someone starts smoking and gets hooked. Someone can start smoking as young as the age of 10 or younger due to curiosity, peer pressure, advertisement, and the media. Smoking can also start because of stress, mental depression, and other negative events and stimuli. Smoking can be used to gain relief and mental pleasure, from the dose of nicotine.

"A MORI survey had found out that 1/3 of smokers will light a cigarette within 30 minutes of waking up, one in twelve will actually light the first within 5 minutes, and over half said that they would have difficulty going a week without smoking." Only one in three smokers will succeed in quitting before they are 60 years old. No matter what age you quit at, if you have been smoking for a long period of time, there will be permanent damage on the body and some effects of smoking are irreversible.

The addiction of smoking is not only mental but also physical. The body is taken over by the addictive drug of nicotine found in tobacco, which makes up the majority of the cigarette. Nicotine is taken in though the blood stream, and depending on the amount you inhale each puff, the lungs, which have a large surface area, will take in more nicotine and quicker, causing large effects. "Nicotine is a psychoactive drug with stimulant effects on the electrical activity of the brain." The effects of nicotine can be calming in a stressful or emotional situation and can also effect "hormonal and other systems throughout the body." When someone gets use to the amount of nicotine they intake, they will start taking larger doses due to tolerance the body has created for the drug. When people then try to get help or want to quit, it will be a lot more difficult due to the withdrawal effects that are more severe due to the large amount of nicotine. Trying on their own, smokers will fail at quitting even though they have tried countless times. Even if they can stop smoking, it will rebound within 2 to 3 months afterwards. It has been shown in studies that severe addictive cases of nicotine are more likely when at a younger age than starting at an older age. "4,800 adolescents smoke their first cigarette, and 42% go on to being regular smokers." Nicotine inside the cigarette causes smoking to be a physical addiction since it produces a "chain reaction" in the body. Nicotine effects the neurotransmitters in the brain and nervous system, and the brains functions and normal operating systems are altered by the nicotine, replacing the last receptors with itself trying to make it as though nicotine was the natural transmitter. It then takes over by making more acetylcholine receptors, causing the body to react as if it was the normal functioning system. Structural changes occur as well as functional within the smokers brain, but when withdrawn the brain and other body parts will be put out of whack, being disturbed from the lack of nicotine as the body tries to readjust to bring back normal functioning. To sum it all up (Nicotine= pleasure and stress relief dopamine are released) and (Quit Nicotine= withdrawal, mood swings, and physical depression).

Another factor of nicotine is that it is also a psychosocial drug. When people smoke over a many years and long periods of time, they learn habits and effects from the amount of cigarettes or smoke they intake. "Learning when, where, and how to take the drug to get the most rewarding effects. The taste, smell, and visual stimuli, handling, and other movements that are closely associated with the rewarding pharmacological effects gradually become rewarding themselves. This is known as conditioning." A smoker can also get a better result for themselves depending on their mood and where they are, can all have a certain effect. Small or large, anything can trigger a person's urge to smoke because smoking can take place anywhere, at almost anytime.

III. Effects and Health Issues

In the United States, over 440,000 death are caused by smoke related illnesses, and most lung cancer is caused by 87% of smoking. Even though nicotine is what hooks you, just chewing tobacco can also give you preventable disease and death. 3,00 lung cancer deaths are caused by secondhand smoking, even if the person who dies has not smoked in their life. The smoke you inhale from smoking is not the only thing that kills you, but what's inside the cigarette is what gets you. A cigarette is made up of water, tar, and nicotine. Within that tiny cigarette, there are over 4,000 identified chemicals and harmful gases produced by the tobacco in it. "Some examples of those toxic gases are carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, and other toxic irritants." Not only are there 4,000 different chemicals in a cigarette, but when it is lit there are even more due to combustion, and the burning ingredients. When the chemicals enter that body, cancer-producing chemicals are absorbed through the lungs into the blood stream, and transported to other parts of the body.

Ways in which the body is effected by smoking, can be complicated and caused over the time period a person smokes and even after they quit. Carbon monoxide, a chemical that is absorbed from inhaling the cigarettes smoke, can cause oxygen flow throughout the body to be reduced as it combines itself with hemoglobin. (CM) can also work with its trouble maker nicotine, by causing an accelerated production of of cholesterol, which over the years, hardens and causes slower blood flow which can be dangerous in most situations. Those effects can combine, with less oxygen and a slower blood flow, your body becomes more venerable for a heart attack. Nicotine and the other chemicals can cause this and many other symptoms within the body.

"Heart disease, 30% of all heart attacks and cardiovascular deaths, Cancer, which 30% of all cancer death and 87% of lung cancer deaths happen each year, and Lung problems, 82% of deaths due to emphysema and chronic bronchitis, are all cause by smoking." Not only are those factors from smoking but also your body can start to even look different like getting wrinkles on your face and skin, and nails turning yellow. Smoking causes earlier menopause and reduces fertility for woman. In men it can reduce and impair sperm. One of the most harmful things it can do to a woman's body during pregnancy is that "it can cause miscarriage, premature birth, and even the death of the baby in the first year of its life." While pregnant a mother should never smoke due to the severe health causes it can put on the child such as reduced birth weight and the development of the brain, losing some of its IQ points compared to a mother that hasn't smoked during pregnancy. Even after birth, effects of smoking will take place such as, behavioral problems, venerability towards effects on passive smoking, and a higher chance "of asthma, frequency of colds, and ear infections."

IV. Conclusion

For many years smoking has been a health issue. Even when the 1900's started smoking was a normal

everyday thing for people since no one understood how bad it was or what the side effects of it were. To

this day and age though, we have been able to be more informed then we did back then, even though it's

still abused. Almost every age group around 10 years of age and up, people have been caught by the

addiction of nicotine. Many people try breaking the habit and most will succeeded was they are able to find

the correct help. No matter what the human population will always be addicted to the chemical bundle

known as a cigarette, no matter how are we try to kick it.

V. Journal Article

In this journal article, it explains how smoking is one of the leading causes for premature deaths in the

USA."435,000 people in the USA die prematurely from smoking-related diseases each year." 1 in 5 die

because of the effects of smoking, and 50% of people have complications because from smoking. Later it

also explains different infections and diseases from smoking that get into deeper details.

Resources:

• http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra0809890

• http://www.allaboutlifechallenges.org/smoking-addiction.htm

• http://www.ehealthmd.com/library/smoking/smo_whatis.html